Research on Bronze Ware Culture
he carrier of bronze ware culture is bronze ware made of bronze. In ancient times, a very special process (called bronze casting process) was used in ancient times. Bronze ware became one of the carriers of ancient splendid civilization. The bronze ware culture in ancient China was very developed, and it is famous for its exquisite production, majestic spirit and superb technology. Slave owners used bronze wares as ritual utensils for banquets and sacrifices to ancestors in ancestral temples.
Introduction to Bronze Ware
Bronze ware refers to vessels, utensils, etc. made of bronze as the basic raw material. Bronze, known as gold or auspicious gold in ancient times, is an alloy of red copper and other chemical elements (tin, nickel, lead, phosphorus, etc.), and its copper rust is turquoise, hence the name. Bronze is a great invention in human history and the earliest alloy in the history of metallurgical casting in the world. Red copper is added with tin and lead to form a new alloy. After thousands of years of chemical reaction, a layer of blue-gray rust appears on the surface of this alloy, so today people call it "bronze", but the ancients called it "bronze". The alloy is called "gold", and the amount of "give gold" and "receive gold" mentioned in the literature refers to bronze.
The Bronze Age and Its Significance
The so-called "Bronze Age" in history refers to the period when bronze tools and bronze ritual vessels were widely used. It is conservatively estimated that this period is mainly from Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties to Qin and Han Dynasties, and the time span is about two thousand years. This is also the glorious period of bronze ware from development, maturity and prosperity. Bronze ware is called "a living history book" by historians because it reveals the casting technology, cultural level and historical origin of the pre-Qin period to people with its unique shape, exquisite decoration and elegant inscriptions. China's ancient civilization is long and far-reaching, and bronze wares are its epitome and reproduction.
The Bronze Age is a period concept in the history of human material evolution first proposed by the Danish archaeologist G.J. Thomson. All ancient civilizations in the world have experienced the Stone Age, Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Chinese ancestors created a unique bronze culture in the world during the Bronze Age (about 4,000 to 2,200 years ago).
Bronze ware is not something ordinary people can own. It has been passed down to the world as a symbol of power and status, and as a ritual vessel to record events and glorify meritorious deeds.
The Superiority of Bronze Ware Raw Materials
Bronze culture has developed in various regions of the world, because bronze has its advantages as a raw material for tools and utensils:
First of all, there are natural pure copper blocks (that is, red copper) in nature, so copper is also one of the earliest metals known to mankind. However, the hardness of red copper is low and it is not suitable for making production tools, so it does not play a big role in production. Later, people discovered tin ore and learned to refine tin. On this basis, people realized that copper added with tin, namely bronze, was harder than pure copper. After measuring the hardness of red copper is 35 degrees of Brin's hardness meter, adding 5% tin, its hardness will be increased to 68 degrees; adding tin 10%, that is, it will be increased to 88 degrees. And after tempering, the hardness can be further improved.
In ancient China, people have been able to accurately grasp the proportion of tin and lead in bronze. According to different casting expectations, tin and lead can be added in proportion. "Zhou Li _ Kao Gong Ji" clearly records the different ratios of different alloys:
Six points of it is gold and tin is one, which is called Zhong Ding Qi (agent).
Five parts are gold and tin is one part, which is called ax and jinqi (agent).
Four parts of it are gold and one part is tin, which is called Ge Ji Qi (agent).
One-third of it is gold and one is tin, which is called the big edge (medicine).
Five points are the gold and the tin is the second, which is called the Qi (agent) of cutting and killing arrows (arrowheads).
Half of gold and tin is called Qi (agent) of Jiansui (bronze mirror).
Generally, the more tin you add, the harder the cast bronze will be, but at the same time the bronze will become more brittle. Secondly, the bronze solution has good fluidity, and the shrinkage rate is very small when it solidifies, so it can cast some objects with very delicate details. Finally, bronze is chemically stable, resistant to corrosion, and can be preserved for a long time. In addition, bronze has a low melting point and does not require very high temperatures for melting. Therefore, after the bronze ware is worn out, it can be returned to the furnace for recasting.
History of Bronze Wares
Archeology proves that Chinese bronzes have a long history, and their history can be traced back to about 3000 BC. About 2000 BC, China entered the Bronze Age from the Xia Dynasty of the slave society and ended the Spring and Autumn Period. From Xia, Shang, Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn to Warring States, Qin and Han in feudal society, each period has a development and evolution system that has been inherited successively. There are many kinds of bronze wares in ancient my country, including: ritual vessels, production tools, weapons, carriages and horses, and other utensils. Among them, the ritual vessels include period food vessels, wine vessels, water vessels and musical instruments.
ritual vessel
The well-developed bronze ritual vessel is one of the notable features of ancient Chinese bronze culture that is different from other ancient bronze cultures in other countries, and it is also the essential feature of ancient Chinese bronze culture. The development of ritual utensils is determined by the extremely strong "patriarchal lineage" relationship in ancient Chinese slave society. People's worship of ancestors and gods goes far beyond their own identification. Bronze ritual vessels appeared in the Xia Dynasty. By the Shang Dynasty, especially in the late Shang Dynasty, the bronze ritual vessels had been very mature, and the main types of vessels were available, mainly including food vessels, wine vessels, water vessels, and musical instruments. The tripod is the main food vessel among the bronze ritual vessels. In ancient society, it was regarded as a symbol of the hierarchy and rights of the ruling class. "Historical Records - Feng Chan Shu" records: "(Xia) Yu collected the gold (bronze) of Jiu Mu to cast Jiu Ding", and since then Jiu Ding has become a symbol of royal power and a treasure handed down to the country. Later, "Jie had chaotic virtues, and the tripod was moved to Shang." Zhou destroyed Shang, and King Cheng moved Jiuding to Luoyi (now Luoyang). In the Spring and Autumn Period, in the first year of King Ding of Zhou Dynasty (606 BC), King Zhuang of Chu attacked the army of Luhun, and Chen Bing was near Luoyi. King Ding sent Wang Sunman to comfort him. Man's forceful refutation: "Although Zhou's virtue declined, the mandate of heaven has not changed, and the weight of the tripod is unquestionable" ("Zuo Zhuan·Xuan Gong Three Years"). This is the famous "Aspirations" story in history.
The earliest bronze tripod discovered by archeology at present is the bronze tripod of the early Shang Dynasty unearthed from the Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan. The late Shang Dynasty Houmuwu (Simuwu) tripod unearthed in Wuguan Village, Yinxu, Anyang in 1939 has a rectangular bucket-shaped belly, with two straight ears on the mouth and four cylindrical feet under the belly. The abdomen is decorated with animal face and Kui [kui] patterns, the outer side of the ears is decorated with double tiger cannibal head patterns, and the upper part of the feet is also decorated with animal face patterns, and all of them use cloud and thunder patterns as ground patterns, which are mysterious and complicated. The inner wall of the abdomen is cast with the inscription "Hou Mu Wu", according to which it can be known that it was made by Zu Geng or Zu Jia, king of Shang, to sacrifice to his mother Wu. The body is huge, 1.33 meters high, 1.10 meters long, and 0.79 meters wide. In 1994, it was measured by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Chinese History Museum and the China Institute of Metrology. The measured weight was 832.84 kilograms. of bronzes. Exquisitely made, it is made of multiple pottery inner molds and outer molds, representing the high level of ancient Chinese bronze smelting and casting industry and the unparalleled wisdom and creativity of ancient Chinese people. The bronze tripod was developed on the basis of the extensive use of pottery tripods in the Neolithic Age. The earliest bronze tripod found so far appeared in the early Shang Dynasty, that is, the Erligang culture period of the Shang Dynasty. After various dynasties, it has been used until the Han Dynasty and even the Wei and Jin Dynasties. Belonging to the Shang Dynasty, there are round tripod, Li tripod, flat foot tripod, square tripod and so on. The tripod system was used in the Shang Dynasty, and one or two were usually buried with small and medium-sized tombs. This is the case in most of the Yin Ruins and areas outside of the Yin Ruins. However, the tombs of the royal family are very different. In the late Shang Dynasty, two square tripods and two square tripods with flat feet were unearthed from the tomb of Fuhao in the Yin Ruins. Thirty-two round tripods of different sizes and a few broken fragments can be seen. Medium and small tombs and royal tombs The strictness of the class distinction. The most obvious expression of hierarchical order is the ranking system of the Western Zhou Dynasty. In Tomb No. 1 of the early Western Zhou Dynasty in Zhuyuangou, Baoji, there were tripods in groups of three of similar size and matching tripods with the other two. The higher the noble rank of the slave owner, the more he uses it, that is to say, the more abundant meat he enjoys. According to the book of rites, in the Western Zhou Dynasty: the emperor used nine tripods, the first tripod was to hold cattle, which was called Tailao, and the following were sheep, hog, fish, wax, intestines and stomach, skin, fresh fish, and fresh wax; princes generally used seven tripods. , also known as Dalao, to reduce the two flavors of fresh meat and fresh cured meat; (but in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the princes and officials of the feudal lords could also use Jiuding); the Qing doctor used Wuding, called Shaolao, and the tripods were actually sheep, pigs, fish, wax, and skin; Scholars use three tripods, which are actually pigs, fish, and wax (scholars also use one tripod, which is actually pigs).
Bronze Wares of the Breeding Period
Late Xia Dynasty (1900-1600 BC)
The Bronze Age of China began in the Xia Dynasty. The geographical distribution of the Erlitou culture is consistent with the territory of the Xia Dynasty. The carbon-14 dating of the Erlitou culture is within the range of the Xia Dynasty. This has led many scholars to recognize the Erlitou culture as the Xia culture. consensus.
It is said that Xia Yu cast Jiuding, and there is even a record in historical materials that Xia Yu started copper smelting after Xia Yu. Archaeologists have unearthed smelting slag, fragments of copper smelting crucibles, and fragments of pottery models in the Erlitou site in Yanshi and the Donggangou site in Luoyang. These also prove that the Erlitou culture already had workshops for smelting and making bronzes.
All the archaeological finds so far are bronzes from the late Xia Dynasty. From the beginning of the Xia Dynasty, two categories of ritual weapons and weapons appeared, thus establishing the structure that Chinese bronzes have always been dominated by ritual weapons and weapons.
Bronze wares of the Xia Dynasty have been discovered, including wine vessels, jues, horns, etc., food vessels, tripods, musical instrument bells, weapon arrowheads, daggers, tool adzes, chisels, cones, etc., and decorations include plaques.
Decoration and Casting Features: Except for milk nails, round cakes and geometric patterns, the ornamentation and casting features of Xia Dynasty bronzes are the decorations inlaid with turquoise. The animal face patterns on the cards, except for the eyes, are abstract and unrealistic. , it is also the earliest known animal face pattern on bronze. The casting technology and craftsmanship level of bronze wares in the Erlitou culture period has made major breakthroughs and developments compared with the age of copper and stone. The production of bronze hollow ware is much more complicated. It requires both an outer mold and an inner mold. Observing from the casting traces, the casting method of multiple molds has been adopted at that time. In terms of craftsmanship, the three plaques unearthed in Erlitou, Yanshi, Henan in 1981, 1984 and 1987 are most worthy of praise. The surface is inlaid with turquoise to form exquisite animal-mask patterns, with superb craftsmanship and strong three-dimensional effect. Its high level of craftsmanship shows that it is no longer an initial stage product.
development period bronze
Early and middle Shang Dynasty (16th century BC-13th century BC)
The bronze wares in the early and middle Shang Dynasty are the period of mature development of Chinese bronze wares art. The system of ritual vessels, mainly wine vessels, was initially established, and the types of weapons increased. Generally decorated with animal face patterns, the composition is becoming more and more dense, and the lines are steep, deep and vigorous. The application of separate casting technology has been relatively skilled, and the technology of making and combining molds has been quite advanced. Bronze wares of this period were found in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and Yangtze River, which laid the foundation for the prosperity of bronze art.
heyday bronzes
Late Shang Dynasty Early Western Zhou Dynasty (13th century BC-11th century BC)
Bronze art from the late Shang Dynasty to the early Western Zhou Dynasty was brilliant. The wine-heavy system of the ritual vessels of the Shang Dynasty was perfected, and the decorations all over the body of the vessels were a combination of relief and flat carvings, which were exquisite. Using exaggerated and symbolic techniques to express animal gods and monsters, the animal face pattern is unprecedentedly developed, which is majestic, mysterious and full of vitality. Chronicle and He Mingwen appeared at the end of Shang Dynasty. At the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, the ritual vessels followed the commercial system, and there were signs of a shift to the food-heavy system. Casting long inscriptions is an important feature of Western Zhou bronze ritual vessels.
Transformation Period Bronze
Middle and Late Western Zhou Dynasty Early Spring and Autumn Period (late 11th century BC - first half of 7th century BC)
The bronze ware of the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty formed a heavy food system. The tripod system, the chime bell system and the practice of giving orders to make utensils have been formed. New types of utensils appeared, with dignified and heavy shapes, and most of the decorations were animal deformations, which either flowed smoothly or were plain and simple. Casting inscriptions on utensils is popular, and heavy utensils with long inscriptions are common. The shapes and decorations of the early Spring and Autumn period are the natural continuation of the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty. Bronze foundry industries were generally established in various vassal states, with different levels. Some fan casting techniques were slightly rough, while the tools of large countries were still more sophisticated.
Renewal Bronze
Middle and Late Spring and Autumn Period Warring States Period (second half of the 7th century BC - 221 BC)
From the mid-Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period, the development of bronze art reached its climax again. The bronze wares of various countries tend to be mature, and the regional characteristics are obvious. The bronze arts of Jin and Qin in the north, Qilu in the east, and Jingchu in the south complement each other. The practicability of utensils in daily life was strengthened, and the functions of ritual utensils gradually disappeared. The innovation of shape and system has produced many strange and exquisite utensils. The dragon-themed decoration is detailed and complicated, and the portraits of the characters' activities are creatively presented as the main pattern. The lost-wax method and the imprinted block pattern combination method are produced, and the inlay technology is gorgeous and exquisite. The inscription font also pays attention to beautification. In the late Warring States period, bronze art tended to be simple and plain.
Qin and Han are the afterglow of the development history of bronze wares.
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